Physical Pharmacy and Instrumental Methods of Analysis

1. Introduction and Physical Properties of Drug Molecules
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Dimensions and Units
1.3 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.4 Atomic Spectra
1.5 Molecular Spectra
1.6 Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrophotometry
1.7 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
1.8 Infrared Spectroscopy
2. Solution
2.1 Definition
2.2 Solvent in a Solution
2.3 Types of solutions
2.4 Methods of Expressing the Concentration of a Solution
2.5 Factors Affecting Solubility
2.5.1 Effect of Temperature
2.5.2. Nature of Solute and Solvent
2.5.2 Effect of Pressure
2.6 Solubility Expressions
Judge Yourself
3. Colligative Properties
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition
3.3 Classification
3.3.1 Lowering of Vapour Pressure
3.3.2 Measurement of Lowering of Vapor Pressure
3.4 Osmotic Pressure
3.4.1 Theories of Semi-Permeable Membrane
Contents

3.4.2 Osmotic Pressure
3.4.3 Measurement of Osmotic Pressure
3.4.4 Effects of Osmosis
3.4.5 Reverse Osmosis and Desalination
3.5 Elevation of Boiling Point
3.5.1 Determination of Boiling Point Elevation
3.6 Depression of Freezing Point
3.6.1 Determination of Molar Mass from Depression in
Freezing Point
3.6.2 Determination of Depression in Freezing Point
Judge Yourself
4. The Distribution Law
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definition
4.3 Solubilities and Distribution Law
4.4 Limitations of Distribution Law
4.5 Thermodynamic Derivation
4.6 Modifications in Distrabution Law
4.6.1 When Solute Undergoes Association in
any one of the Solvent
4.6.2 When Solute Undergoes Dissociation in
any one of the Solvent
4.6.3 The Solute Enters into Chemical Combination
with one of Solvent
4.7 Applications of Distribution Coefficient
4.7.1 Association of a Solute
4.7.2 Dissociation of a Solute
4.7.3 Distribution Indicators
4.7.4 Extraction with a Solvent
4.7.5 Partition Chromatography
Judge Yourself
5. Ionization and Ionic Equilibria
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Arrhenious Concept [Savanti Arrhenius (Doctoral thesis in 1887)]
5.2.1 Role of Water
5.3 Bronsted–Lowery Concept
5.4 Lewis Electronic Concept

5.4.1 Hydrogen Ion Concentration
5.4.2 Ionization of Water
5.5 Ionization of Acids and Bases
5.5.1 Conversion of Hydrogen Ion Concentration to pH.
5.5.2 Common Ion Effect
5.6 Buffers
5.6.1 Buffer of Weak Acid and its Salt
5.6.2 Buffer of Weak base and its Salt: NH4OH & NH4Cl
5.6.3 Buffer Capacity
5.6.4 Maximum Buffer Capacity
5.6.5 Buffer Capacity and Neutralization Curve
5.7 Hydrolysis of Salt
5.7.1 Hydrolysis Constant
5.7.2 Degree of Hydrolysis
5.7.3 Salt of Weak Base and Strong Acid
5.7.4 Salt of Weak Acid and Weak Base
5.8 Solubility Product
Judge Yourself
6. Chemical Kinetics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Rate and Order of Reaction
6.3 Molecularity
6.4 Specific Rate Constant
6.5 Units of Basic Rate Constant
6.6 Calculation of Reaction Rate
6.7 Zero Order Reaction
6.7.1 Characteristics of Zero Order Reaction
6.7.2 Example of Zero Order Reaction
6.7.3 Apparent Zero Order Kinetics
6.8 First Order Reaction
6.8.1 Examples of Order Rate Kinetics
6.9 Second Order Reaction
6.10 Methods for Determination of Order of A Reaction
6.10.1 Method of Integration (Hit and trial method)
6.10.2 Graphical method
6.10.3 Half Life Method
x Physical Pharmacy and Instrumental Methods of Analysis
6.11 Factors that Affect Reaction Rate
6.11.1 Concentration
6.11.2 Pressure
6.11.3 Surface Area
6.11.4 Nature of Reactants
6.11.5 Temperature
6.12 Theories of Chemical Kinetics
6.12.1 Collision Theory
6.12.2 Transition State Theory
6.13 Decomposition and Stabilization of Medicinal Agents 95
6.14 Summary
Judge Yourself
7. Catalysis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of Catalyst
7.2.1 Catalyst Poison
7.2.2 Induced Catalysis
7.2.3 Catalyst Promoter
7.2.4 Autocatalysis
7.3 Characteristics of a Catalyst
7.4 Theories of Catalysis
7.4.1 The Intermediate Compound Formation Theory
7.4.2 The Adsorption Theory
7.5 Types of Catalysis
7.5.1 Homogenous Catalysis
7.5.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis
7.5.3 Enzyme Catalysis
7.6 Catalytic Poisoning
7.7 Applications of Catalysis
Judge Yourself
8. Electrochemistry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition of Terms
8.2.1 Conductance (c)
8.2.2 Resistance
8.2.3 Conductivity
Contents xi
8.2.4 Resistivity
8.2.5 Molar Conductance
8.2.6 Equivalent Conductance
8.3 Types of Conductors
8.4 Laws of Electric Current
8.4.1 Ohms Law
8.4.2 Faraday`s Law of Electrolysis
8.4.3 Kohlrausch’s Law
8.4.4 Electrolytic Conductance
8.4.5 Mechanism of Electrolytic Conductance
8.6 Conductivity Cell
8.6.1 Types of Conductivity Cell
8.6.2 Cell Constant
8.7 Factors Affecting Electrolytic Conductance
8.7.1 Nature of Electrolyte
8.7.2 Concentration of the Solution
8.7.3 Temperature
8.8 Applications
8.8.1 Determination of Degree of Dissociation of
Weak Electrolyte
8.8.2 Basicity of Organic Acids
8.8.3 Determination of Solubility and Solubility
Product of Sparingly Soluble Salt
8.8.4 Ionic Product of Water
8.8.5 Determination of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in Water
Judge Yourself
9. Potentiometry
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Cell
9.2.1 Galvanic Cell
9.2.2 Notation
9.2.3 Conductance in Cell
9.2.4 Liquid Junction
9.3 Cell Types
9.3.1 Concentration Cell
9.3.2 Electrolytic Cell
9.3.3 Electrochemical Cell
xii Physical Pharmacy and Instrumental Methods of Analysis
9.4 Reversible and Irreversible Cells
9.5 Electrode Potential
9.5.1 Calomel Electrode
9.5.2 Standard Electrode Potential
9.6 Cell Potential
9.7 Reversible Electrodes
9.7.1 Electrodes Reversible with Respect to
Cation or Electrode of First Kind
9.7.2 Electrodes Reversible with Respect to
Anion or Electrode of Second Kind
9.7.3 Electrodes of Third Kind
9.7.4 Oxidation Reduction Electrodes or
Electrodes of Fourth Kind 134
9.8 Some Common Reversible Electrodes
9.8.1 Meta-Metal Ion Electrode
9.8.2 Gas Electrode
9.8.3 Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE)
9.8.4 Selectivity of Ion Selective Electrodes
9.9 Sensing Electrodes
9.9.1 Polymer Membrane Electrodes (Organic Ion
Exchangers and Chelating Agents)
9.9.2 Solid State Electrodes (Insoluble Conductive
Inorganic Salts)
9.9.3 Gas Sensing Electrodes
9.9.4 Glass Membrane Electrodes
9.10 Glass Electrode
9.10.1 Construction
9.10.2 Storage
9.10.3 Advantages
9.10.4 Disadvantage
9.11 Reference Electrodes
9.11.1 Primary Reference Electrode e.g.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
9.11.2 Working 142
9.11.3 Secondary Reference Electrode
9.11.4 Silver/Silver Chloride Electrode
9.12 Potentiometric Titration
9.12.1 Modes of Titration
Contents xiii
9.12.2 Acid Base Titration
9.12.3 Oxidation Reduction Titration
9.12.4 Complexometric Titration
9.13 Summary
Judge Yourself
10. Aquametry
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Chemical Methods
10.2.1 The Karl Fischer Titration Method
10.2.2 Direct Titration by Karl Fischer Reagent
10.2.3 Residual Titration using Karl Fischer Reagent
10.2.4 Coulometric Method: (Electrometric Method)
10.3 Physical Methods (Azeotropic Distillation)
10.3.1 Apparatus
10.3.2 Procedure
10.4 Gas Chromatographic Method
10.5 Conductometric Method Of Water Determination
10.6 Thermal Method
10.6.1 Loss on Drying
10.7 Summary
Judge Yourself
11. Spectrofluorimetry
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Theory
11.3 Rate of Absorption And Emission
11.4 Deactivating Factors
11.4.1 Vibr

Dr. Mymoona Akhter, Ph.D. (Pharmaceutical Sciences), is Professor of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Director, Centre for teaching support and innovations, Jamia Hamdard, Deputy Coordinator, Bioinformatics Infrastructure Facility, Jamia Hamdard, and Treasurer, Indian Pharmaceutical  Association, Delhi State Branch. She got her B. Pharm in Pharmaceutical Sciences, M. Pharm in Pharmaceutical Chemistry, and Doctorate Degree (Ph.D.) in Pharmaceutical Chemistry at Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India. She has been bestowed with several honors like APP Women Scientist Award 2023 by Association of Pharmacy Professionals, Women Scientist of the year 2019, by Society for Women in Science and Technology, the SERB- fast track research project award for young scientists by DST, Govt. of India (2012), the Career Award for Young Teachers by AICTE (2010), and SERC Visiting Fellowship by DST (2005). Dr. Akhter has received research grants to the tune of more than Rs. 1.5 crores from UGC/ ICMR/ AYUSH/AICTE/ DST/ DBT. She has published more than 130 research articles in journals of repute and 3 books and 3 book chapters. She is supervising scientific research of the postgraduate and the doctoral level

Dr. M. Mumtaz Alam, Ph.D. (Pharmaceutical Sciences), is Professor of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, and Dy. Director, School of Distant Learning Jamia Hamdard. He got his B. Pharma in Pharmaceutical Sciences, M. Pharm in Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, and Doctorate Degree (Ph.D.) in Pharmaceutical Chemistry at Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India. He has received research grants from UGC/ AICTE. He has published more than 150 research and review articles in journals of repute and 5 books. He is supervising scientific research at the postgraduate and the doctoral level.